Exploring Handshakes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 6032 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/09/19 Category Business Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Personality Essay Did you like this example? Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Greg L. Stewart, Department of Management and Organizations, Tippie College of Business, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242 Electronic Mail may be sent to: [emailprotected] edu. A firm handshake is often identified as an aspect of nonverbal communication that has a critical influence on impressions formed during employment interviews. Indeed, a recent search of the Internet revealed nearly a million listings that detailed the importance of the handshake and gave advice about the proper way to shake hands during an interview. In spite of seemingly widespread acceptance of the important role the handshake plays in interview success, empirical research examining the handshake in employment interviews is lacking. Nonverbal cues other than the handshake, such as eye contact during discussions and smiling, have been shown to have a critical influence on interview assessments (DeGroot Motowidlo, 1999). Although not studied in the interview context, the ubiquitous prevalence of the handshake at both the beginning and the end of interviews suggests that nonverbal cues communicated through the shaking of hands may convey important information about job applicants. The handshake may specifically convey information about an individuals personality, as early research suggested a traitlike relationship between the handshake and personality (Chaplin, Phillips, Brown, Clanton, Stein, 2000; Vanderbilt, 1957). In short, good handshakes are believed to communicate sociability, friendliness, and dominance, whereas poor handshakes may communicate introversion, shyness, and neuroticism (Chaplin et al. , 2000). Yet, research has not explored relationships between the nonverbal act of shaking hands and employment interview evaluations. In this article, we empirically examine the role of the handshake in employment interviews. We first seek to determine whether quality of the handshake does indeed co rrespond with interviewer assessments. We then explore the nature of what is being conveyed through the handshake by examining relationships between the handshake and personality. We also assess the effect of potential gender differences in handshaking. Is Handshake Quality Related to Ratings in Employment Interviews? In the interview context, nonverbal behaviors are assumed to convey useful information (Gifford, Ng, Wilkinson, 1985; Schlenker, 1980). The category of nonverbal cues can be broadly defined as cues, other than the content of responses, or demographic differences like sex and race (Parsons Liden, 1984). Nonverbal behaviors commonly thought to be important during an interview include eye contact, smiling, posture, interpersonal distance, and body orientation (Forbes Jackson, 1980; Imada Hakel, 1977; Motowidlo Burnett, 1995; Young Beier, 1977). These behaviors are assumed to influence interviewer reactions, which in turn result in attributions of applicant cha racteristics such as communication ability, intelligence, and self-confidence (DeGroot Motowidlo, 1999; McGovern Tinsley, 1978). Given that a handshake typically occurs in the interview setting, it is surprising that researchers have not looked at the role this form of tactile nonverbal communication may play in the interview setting. The handshake is a nonverbal touch behavior that can convey an immediacy dimension in interviews (Imada Hakel, 1977). Immediacy is an interaction between two individuals that involves close physical proximity and/or perceptual availability (Mehrabian, 1972). It has been theorized that greater immediacy leads to attributions of greater liking (Imada Hakel, 1977; Mehrabian, 1967). Because the act of shaking hands requires physical contact, the handshake should influence immediacy evaluations. Physical touch is generally associated with warmth, closeness, caring, and intimacy (Edinger Patterson, 1983). Of course, awkward handshakes can also com municate negative information (Edinger Patterson, 1983; Schlenker, 1980). Desirable handshakes have been described as firm handshakes that include a strong and complete grip, vigorous shaking for a lasting duration, and eye contact while hands are clasped (Chaplin et al. , 2000). Given the high correspondence between other nonverbal cues and interview assessments, we predicted that handshakes demonstrating these desirable characteristics would communicate positive information about the ndividual being evaluated. * Hypothesis 1: Individuals with a firm handshake will receive more positive evaluations during employment interviews. What Does the Handshake Communicate? Because shaking hands is often the first behavioral act that occurs when people meet, information conveyed through the handshake is potentially critical. But what information does a handshake convey? What specific cues communicated through the handshake might enhance an interviewers evaluation? One possibility is that shaking hands during an interview creates an impression about candidate personality traits that in turn influences assessments of suitability for employment. To explore this effect, we examined existing research on the relationship between traits and the handshake. Greeting behavior, such as the handshake, has mainly been investigated in anthropological and ethnographic studies (Astrom Thorell, 1996; Schiffrin, 1974; Webster, 1984). Our search of the literature found only four empirical studies related to handshaking, and none of them was conducted in the interview context. Three studies were conducted in Sweden by Astrom and associates (Astrom, 1994; Astrom Thorell, 1996; Astrom, Thorell, Holmlund, dElia, 1993), who found moderate relationships between the handshake and personality characteristics such as social extraversion. However, the generalizability of these conclusions to an interview setting is limited, as participants included psychiatric patients, therapists, and c lergymen. Another study by Chaplin et al. (2000) in a noninterview setting found a firm handshake to be positively related to extraversion (r = . 19) and emotional expressiveness (r = . 6) but to be negatively related to shyness (r = ?. 29) and neuroticism (r = ?. 24). The findings across studies suggest that the handshake is particularly informative for assessment of two personality traits: extraversion and neuroticism (Chaplin et al. , 2000). Of the two personality traits identified as likely to be communicated through the handshake, extraversion, but not neuroticism, appears to correspond with interview assessments. Tay, Ang, and Van Dyne (2006) specifically found evidence of a relationship with interview success for extraversion (r = . 4) but not for neuroticism (r = . 06). Other studies (e. g. , Caldwell Burger, 1998; DeFruyt Mervielde, 1999) have similarly identified extraversion as the personality trait most strongly related to employment interview outcomes. Moreover, meta- analytic evidence suggests that interviewer assessments of extraversion are related to evaluations of work contribution (? = . 33; Huffcutt, Conway, Roth, Stone, 2001). Thus, cues related to extraversion appear to be particularly relevant for interpretation of personality information conveyed through shaking hands during employment interviews. In the interview setting, a firm handshake may convey that the applicant has a high level of extraversion and thus lead to a more positive evaluation. In short, a firm handshake signifies persuasive ability, sociability, and interpersonal skills (Astrom Thorell, 1996; Chaplin et al. , 2000), which are aspects of extraversion that are particularly related to success in social interactions (Costa McCrae, 1992; Tay et al. , 2006). We therefore hypothesized that the handshake represents a behavioral manifestation of an individuals extraversion. Hypothesis 2: Extraversion will correlate positively with handshake ratings. * Hypothesis 3: The h andshake is a behavioral mediator of the relationship between extraversion and hirability evaluations in employment interviews. Although extraversion is the only five factor model (FFM) trait previously linked both to the handshake and to interview outcomes, we sought additional insight concerning traits. We thus included the remaining FFM traits—neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience—as exploratory measures. Meta-analytic evidence also suggests that interviewers may use candidate appearance for spontaneous personality assessments at the beginning of the interview (Hosoda, Stone-Romero, Coats, 2003). To control for possible effects of the what is beautiful is good stereotype (Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, Longo, 1991), we obtained measures of candidate physical attractiveness and professional appearance. Prior research suggests that physically attractive candidates obtain more positive interviewer evaluations than do candidates who are less attractive (Forsythe, Drake, Cox, 1985; Motowidlo Burnett, 1995). Professional appearance, which includes appropriateness of hygiene, personal grooming, and dress (Kinicki Lockwood, 1985; Mack Rainey, 1990), is expected to have even larger effects during the interview, because candidates are assumed to have more control over their own cleanliness and dress and interviewers are influenced by expectations about customary social behavior or conduct during the interview (Posthuma, Morgeson, Campion, 2002). To better isolate the effect of shaking hands, we included both measures of candidate appearance as covariates. Does a Weaker Handshake Place Women at a Disadvantage in Employment Interviews? Considerable research has investigated how demographic characteristics, including gender, impact interview outcomes. Given equal qualifications, research suggests that women tend to be evaluated less positively than do men in ratings of their credentials on paper (Arvey, 1979; Barr Hitt, 1986; Hitt Barr, 1989; Parsons Liden, 1984). On the other hand, female applicants have been found to be judged more favorably than male applicants on some nonverbal interview behaviors, such as posture and eye contact (Parsons Liden, 1984). Nevertheless, many of these effects are modest and may largely reflect similarity between applicant and interviewer (Arvey Campion, 1982; Dipboye, 1982; Harris, 1989; Posthuma et al. , 2002; Schmitt, 1976). Goldberg and Cohen (2004) posited that, in relation to nonverbal cues, gender may impact recruiters assessments of applicants differently than do verbal cues. For example, research suggests that women are perceived as being more adept at conveying nonverbal communication than are men (Buck, Miller, Caul, 1974; Goldberg Cohen, 2004; Graham, Unruh, Jennings, 1991; LaFrance Mayo, 1979). In contrast, men are typically seen as being more rational in their presentation of ideas than are women (Burke, 1996). Goldberg and Co hen (2004) found that nonverbal skills were a stronger predictor than were verbal skills of overall interview assessments. However, they found only marginal support for expected gender differences. This finding highlights the need for research that clarifies gender differences associated with nonverbal communication. Potential gender differences are of particular concern when it comes to the handshake. Chaplin et al. 2000) found handshaking scores to be lower for women than for men. They suggested that this may be so because women have less experience in handshaking, as the practice has historically been more common between men than it has been between women or between women and men. Thus, a positive relationship between the handshake and interview outcomes might have a negative impact on women. If handshakes for women are evaluated as less desirable, the result might be lower interviewer assessments of suitability for hiring. This expected difference in handshaking resulted in our final hypothesis. Hypothesis 4: Handshakes from women will be rated less favorably than are handshakes from men, which will result in lower interviewer assessments for women. Method Participants and Procedures Participants in this study were 98 undergraduate students enrolled in an elective, one-credit career preparations class at a large midwestern university. Their mean age was 21 years (SD = 2. 7), and 69% were juniors and seniors. Of the participants, 50 were women and 90% were Caucasian. As part of the class, students participated in a mock interview. Participants were instructed to treat this experience just as they would a real interview (e. . , by dressing appropriately and researching the company prior to the interview). They were also informed that past participants had occasionally obtained real interviews, which led to actual jobs, as a result of favorable mock interviews. Informal conversations with participants and interviewers following the mock interviews indicated t hat the participants did take the opportunity seriously and put forth their best effort. Human resources professionals from local organizations volunteered their time to conduct the mock interviews, which typically lasted about 1 hr. A mock interview included a 30- to 45-min interview and 15–20 min of feedback provided to the participant. Interviewers were instructed to use the same interview format they presently followed with actual candidates and to focus on the job with the most frequent openings. Hence, the mock interview was based on actual selection practices and corresponded to an interview the candidates could expect to engage in during their own job search. Because some interviewers conducted more than one interview, we assessed potential bias from nonindependence of measures. Following the procedures of Kenny and Judd (1986), we conducted an analysis of variance, with interview ratings as the dependent variable and interviewer as the independent factor, and f ound no evidence of rater effects, F(26, 74) = 1. 26, ns. The obtaining of multiple ratings from interviewers thus appears not to have created problems associated with nonindependence of measures. Handshake firmness was assessed by five independent raters, who scored each participants handshake at different times during the mock interview process. The raters shook hands while greeting each participant, either before or after the mock interview, so both interviewees and interviewers were unaware that handshakes were being evaluated. None of the handshake evaluators served as an interviewer. Two raters greeted and shook hands when a participant arrived for the mock interview. Participants were then introduced to a third rater, who shook hands. After the mock interview, a fourth rater greeted participants, shook hands, and introduced them to the fifth rater, who shook hands. Within 5–10 s of shaking hands, raters excused themselves from participants and completed an evaluatio n form. To avoid priming interviewers to pay undue attention to the handshake, we did not ask them to provide explicit assessments of the handshake. Rater Training Following the procedures of Chaplin et al. (2000), we trained raters in handshake evaluation. On contact with an individuals hand, raters were instructed to close their hand around the participants hand but to wait for the participant to initiate the strength of the grip and the upward-and-downward shaking. Furthermore, the raters were instructed to release their grip only when the participant began to relax his or her grip or otherwise show signs of terminating the handshake. Raters practiced their handshaking technique on each other and on other individuals until they had mastered the evaluation concepts and technique. The training included information about the handshake dimensions. Definitions of the completeness of grip, strength, duration, vigor, and eye contact were provided. Extreme examples of each dimensio n were illustrated. Individuals were recruited to shake hands with the raters and were instructed to shake hands the same way with all five raters. The raters coded the practice handshakes on all dimensions. We discussed discrepancies in the ratings to create a common frame of reference among raters. Measures Handshake ratings The raters assessed the five handshake characteristics on 5-point rating scales (Chaplin et al. , 2000). Given that each students handshake was scored by five independent raters, we calculated estimates of interrater reliability for completeness of grip (1 = very incomplete to 5 = full; intraclass correlation [ICC(2)] = . 77), strength (1 = weak to 5 = strong; ICC = . 83), duration (1 = brief to 5 = long; ICC = . 73), vigor (1 = low to 5 = high; ICC = . 71), and eye contact while grasping hands (1 = none to 5 = direct; ICC = . 68). Given high intercorrelation among the handshake characteristics, we also created an overall handshake score represented by t he mean of the five items (ICC = . 85). Personality Participants completed the Personal Characteristics Inventory (Mount, Barrick, Wonderlic Consulting, 2002) in a classroom context not directly related to the mock interview. The inventory comprises 150 Likert-type items that measure conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. Coefficient alpha estimates are . 89, . 90, . 91, . 90, and . 85, respectively. Hiring recommendation Interviewers completed a final hiring recommendation at the end of the interview. The evaluation consisted of five questions that are used to assess perceived applicant suitability (Cable Judge, 1997; Higgins Judge, 2004; Stevens Kristof, 1995). Questions were rated on a 5-point scale. Examples include This student appears to be very qualified (response options ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree) and How satisfied do you think you would be if you were to hire this student for a full-time position? (response options ranged from strongly dissatisfied to very satisfied). Coefficient alpha for the hiring recommendation was . 90 in this sample. Candidate appearance Each candidate was videotaped while sitting for 5 s (with no audio). Four raters, independent from the interviewers and other raters in the study, evaluated applicant physical attractiveness and professional appearance. Physical attractiveness was assessed according to the single-item measure used by Cable and Judge (1997): Please rate the overall level of physical attractiveness of this candidate on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very unattractive) to 5 (very attractive). Ratings of professional dress relied on a five-item scale adapted from Parsons and Liden (1984) and Kinicki and Lockwood (1985). Items include The applicant was appropriately dressed, with answers ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Coefficient alpha for the five-item professional dress scale was . 80. Interrater a greement was shown by ICC values of . 79 for physical attractiveness and . 89 for professional dress. Results Table 1 shows means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among the variables. Hypothesis 1 predicted a relationship between a firm handshake and interview ratings and was supported (r = . 9, p . 05). All five handshake dimensions also related significantly to the interviewer evaluation (rs . 24–. 31), although none were significantly different from the effect found for the overall handshake. We thus include only the overall average rating for our tests of mediation. As expected, extraversion correlated positively with interviewer ratings (r = . 28, p . 05). Supporting Hypothesis 2, extraversion correlated positively with handshake quality (r = . 23, p . 05). The two covariates, physical appearance and professional dress, were not significantly correlated with the interviewers hiring recommendation (rs = ?. 1 and . 15, respectively) but were correlated with t he ratings of the handshake (r = . 19 and . 42, respectively). None of the other FFM traits were related to either the handshake or the interviewer evaluations. apl-93-5-1139-tbl1a. gifMeans, Standard Deviations, and Correlations In a result similar to those of previous studies, women received lower ratings for the overall handshake rating (M = 3. 47 for women vs. M = 3. 70 for men). As shown in Table 2, item-level analysis revealed that this effect was attributable to gender differences on handshake strength (M = 3. 11 vs. M = 3. 64) and grip (M = 3. 51 vs. M = 3. 9). apl-93-5-1139-tbl2a. gifVariable Means by Participant Gender We used path analysis (Bentler Wu, 1995) to test Hypotheses 3 and 4. We tested and compared three models. Model 1 includes both direct and indirect effects for extraversion and gender. Models 2 and 3 are nested within Model 1. To test whether part of the effect of extraversion and gender on interviewer ratings is mediated by the handshake, Model 2 eliminate s paths from these variables to the handshake by fixing these parameters to zero. Comparison of the fit of Model 2 to that obtained for Model 1 enabled us to test whether there were mediation effects. Model 3 removes the direct paths from extraversion and gender to interviewer ratings. Lack of difference in the fit of Models 1 and 3 would provide support for the more parsimonious complete mediation model (Model 3). Each model controlled for the effect of agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience, physical attractiveness, and professional dress on interviewer ratings. Given an expected relationship between physical appearance and professional dress, we allowed the error terms for these variables to covary. Table 3 shows results for each model. To estimate model fit, we evaluated the chi-square statistic, root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA; Browne Cudeck, 1993), goodness of fit index (GFI; Joreskog Sorbom, 1993), and comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990). Model 1, with both direct and indirect effects, exhibited good fit, ? 2(16, N = 98) = 24. 15, p = . 09, RMSEA = . 07, GFI = . 95, CFI = . 95. Fit for Model 2 was not as good, ? 2(18, N = 98) = 31. 68, p = . 02, RMSEA = . 09, GFI = . 94, CFI = . 91, and a chi-square difference test suggested that it was significantly worse, ? 2(2, N = 98) = 7. 15, p . 5, than was the fit for a model that included mediating effects (Model 1). This result shows that at least some of the effect of extraversion and gender on interviewer assessments was mediated by the handshake. Fit for Model 3 was marginal, ? 2(18, N = 98) = 31. 28, p = . 03, RMSEA = . 09, GFI = . 94, CFI = . 91, and the chi-square difference test suggested that fit for Model 3 was significantly worse than was fit for Model 1, 2(2) = 7. 13, p . 05. This result supports partial mediation, as the direct paths from gender and extraversion (included in Model 1) retain some explanatory power. pl-93-5-1139-t bl3a. gifFit Indices for Path Models Results for the best fitting model—Model 1—are shown in Figure 1. Extraversion had an indirect effect on interviewer ratings through its relationship with the handshake (? = . 19), as well as a direct effect (? = . 31). Hypothesis 3 was supported, as the handshake operated as a mediator of the relationship between extraversion and interviewer assessments. Hypothesis 4 was not supported. Women received lower ratings for the handshake (? = . 18) but somewhat higher interviewer ratings (? = ?. 14). Weaker handshakes for women did not translate into lower interviewer assessments. In fact, the negative indirect relationship for women through the handshake was compensated for by a positive but nonsignificant direct relationship with the interviewer assessment. This effect is labeled suppression by Cohen and Cohen (1983). Negative relationships with some personality traits for women created additional indirect paths that were negative. Taken together, these effects show that about one half of the positive effect for women on interviewer ratings was nullified by indirect and spurious effects through the handshake. pl-93-5-1139-fig1a. gifFigure 1. Path model with direct and indirect effects. Values are standardized coefficients. Personality and gender variables are allowed to intercorrelate. Error terms between ratings of professional dress and physical appearance are allowed to covary. *p . 05. None of the covariates exhibited a significant relationship with the interviewer assessment. However, the handshake influenced interviewer ratings even after we had controlled for ratings of physical attractiveness and professional dress, as well as for the remaining FFM personality traits. Discussion To our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically supports the commonly held assumption that the handshake matters in employment interviews. The high degree of interrater reliability associated with the handshake e valuation provides strong support for the notion that people present a consistent handshake when greeting others. Furthermore, as hypothesized, individuals who follow common prescriptions for shaking hands, such as having a firm grip and looking the other person in the eye, receive higher ratings of employment suitability from interviewers. As this is the first empirical study to have examined the handshake in employment interviews, a number of issues that still need clarification. One issue is the extent to which our findings generalize to other settings. Our data were collected in a mock interview setting, in which interviewers evaluated the suitability of candidates for a wide variety of jobs. Future studies should assess whether the same relationships exist in actual interviews, with real job offers on the line, and whether the effect is stronger for some jobs than for others. Most of the interviewers in our study chose to interview for jobs with at least moderate social d emands, and it may be that the handshake is not as strongly related to evaluations for jobs in which social interaction is not integral. We also chose to isolate the effect of the handshake by not sharing preinterview information, such as test scores and resumes. Such information has been linked to interview assessments (Macan Dipboye, 1990), and provision of additional details about interviewee characteristics and qualifications may result in interviewers being less influenced by nonverbal cues like the handshake. Future studies should thus explore whether or not the inclusion of preinterview information alters the relationship between the handshake and interview evaluations. Perhaps the most important question for future investigation is whether the handshake represents superficial bias or truly communicates important information about job candidates. A long-standing concern about employment interviews is the possibility that interviewers make quick first impressions and then seek information that verifies their early perceptions (Dougherty, Turban, Callender, 1994; Macan Dipboye, 1988). Is the relationship between the handshake and hiring recommendation evidence of quick judgmental bias for interviewers, or are interviewers actually obtaining valid information when they shake hands? In the present study, we sought to minimize judgmental bias by obtaining handshake ratings from a source other than the interviewers. The link between interviewer evaluation of the candidate and handshake ratings provided by other individuals increases our confidence that a quality handshake conveys something meaningful about the interviewee that is also reflected in the rating of employment suitability. Moreover, the link between handshake quality and personality is consistent with the notion of information relevant to job performance (i. e. , extraversion; Huffcutt et al. , 2001) being communicated through this nonverbal interaction. Nevertheless, additional resear ch should clarify the extent to which the handshake operates as either a biasing influence or an indicator of valid information. Of course, interviewee actions during the course of the interview will result in additional information that should be taken into account when the interviewer makes a hiring recommendation. This fact illustrates how noteworthy it is to find a consistent effect for the handshake even after 30 min of social interaction during the interview. One explanation for the relationship is the possibility that the handshake itself is recalled and factored into the final evaluation. Another explanation is that individuals with a firm handshake engage in other positive behaviors during the interview. Once again, the link between extraversion and interview ratings supports such an effect. More extraverted interviewees present a firmer handshake, and they likely engage in other positive behaviors that reflect their ability to perform work successfully. Indeed, Huffc utt et al. (2001) found interviewer assessments of extraversion to be an important predictor of job performance. It thus seems likely that interviewers subconsciously combine information obtained during the handshake with other information obtained during the interview to arrive at an evaluation of employment suitability that is a valuable predictor of future performance. Our findings also provide important insights concerning gender and the handshake. The suppression effect identified in our data illustrates that, even though women may be less adept at handshaking, they engage in other actions that overcome the effects of a weak handshake. Our dimensional results show that the negative effect for women is carried through strength and grip rather than through eye contact. This finding, coupled with other research demonstrating that women excel at coding and decoding other nonverbal cues (e. g. facial expression and posture; Graham et al. , 1991), suggests that women have other st rengths that can overcome the liability of a handshake that lacks a firm and complete grip. In terms of gender, our a priori prediction was simply that women would receive lower ratings for quality of handshake. We did not hypothesize that the influence of the handshake on evaluations provided at the end of the interview would differ for men and for women. Yet, post hoc exploratory analyses also suggest that women may benefit more from a firm handshake than do men. Specifically, we probed how gender interacts with the handshake by regressing interviewer ratings on handshake ratings, gender, and the interaction between gender and handshake. A possible trend we identified suggests that handshake firmness (a combined measure of strength and grip) interacts with gender. Although this relationship was below conventional standards for statistical significance (? R2 for interaction term = . 02, p = . 20), a plot of the results suggests a stronger relationship with a firm handshake for w omen than for men. Men and women with a weak handshake (one standard deviation below the mean) received almost identical ratings for employment suitability, but women with a firm handshake (one standard deviation above the mean) received substantially higher ratings than did men with a handshake of the same firmness. Thus, even though women on average present a weaker handshake, those women who do present a very firm handshake receive higher ratings than do men with an equally firm handshake. This effect was not found for the eye contact dimension or for the overall handshake rating. The combined findings that there is a potential interaction between firmness and gender and that the same dimensions of strength and grip are, on average, lower for women suggest that the value of a firm handshake may be greater for women than for men. The fact that an interviewer is less likely to receive a firm handshake from a woman than a man makes handshake firmness more salient to the interv iewer when he or she evaluates women and thereby increases the potential benefit of a strong and complete grip for women. The results of this study therefore provide three specific contributions toward an understanding of the handshake in employment interviews. First, we provide the first empirical link between the handshake and interviewer assessments. Second, we show that a firm handshake partially mediates the effect of extraversion, which implies that the handshake is more than a biasing factor and can indeed communicate meaningful information about job applicants. Third, we demonstrate that women overcome the effects of weaker handshakes, such that on average they do not receive lower interview performance ratings from interviewers, and that women may actually benefit more than do men if they present a strong and complete grip when they shake hands. From a practical perspective, our findings suggest that the effect of the handshake in employment interviews should not be i gnored. Interviewers can obtain important information about interviewee traits through the nonverbal cue of the handshake. Indeed, given that Huffcutt et al. 2001) found a stronger correlation with job performance for a rating of extraversion from interviewers (? = . 33) than is typical for a correlation with self-report measures (? = . 15; Barrick, Mount, Judge, 2001), obtaining trait evaluations through behavioral indicators such as the handshake may be a valuable approach that can increase the validity of selection decisions. Of course, the likelihood of accurate assessment of traits through behavioral acts such as the handshake is likely to attenuate if job applicants receive training to provide firmer handshakes. When it comes to handshake training, a practical implication of the results is that women, as compared with men, have a greater chance of improving their interview evaluations by learning to shake hands with a firm and complete grip. In the end, our findings add to a long-running historical analysis of the handshake. The handshake is thought to have originated in medieval Europe as a way for kings and knights to show that they did not intend to harm each other and possessed no concealed weapons (Hall Hall, 1983). The results presented in this study show that this age-old social custom has an important place in modern business interactions. Although the handshake may appear to be a business formality, it can indeed communicate critical information and influence interviewer assessments. 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Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 65–72. Forsythe, S. , Drake, M. F. , Cox, C. E. (1985). Influence of applicants dress on interviewers selection decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 374–378. Gifford, R. , Ng, C. F. , Wilkinson, M. (1985). Nonverbal cues in the employment interview: Links between appl icant qualities and interviewer judgments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 729–736. Goldberg, C. , Cohen, D. J. (2004). Gender differences in the impact of interviewing skills on applicant assessments. Group Organization Management, 29(3), 369–384. Graham, G. H. , Unruh, J. , Jennings, P. (1991). The impact of nonverbal communication in organizations: A survey of perceptions. Journal of Business Communication, 28, 45–62. Hall, P. M. , Hall, D. A. (1983). The handshake as interaction. Semiotica, 45, 249–264. Harris, M. M. (1989). Reconsidering the employment interview: A review of recent literature and suggestions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 42, 691–726. 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(1993). LISREL 6: Analysis of linear structural relationships by maximum likelihood and least square methods. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software. Kenny, D. A. , Judd, C. M. (1986). Consequences of violating the independence assumption in analysis of variance. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 422–431. Kinicki, A. J. , Lockwood, C. J. (1985). The interview process: An examination of factors recruiters use in evaluating candidates. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, 117–125. LaFrance, M. , Mayo, C. (1979). A review of nonverbal behaviors of women and men. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 43, 96–107. Macan, T. H. , Dipboye, R. L. (1988). The effects of interviewers initial impressions on information gathering. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 42(3), 364–387. Macan, T. H. , Dipboye, R. L. (1990). The relationship of interviewers preinterview impressions to selection and recruitment outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 43, 745–768. Mack, D. , Rainey, D. (1990). Female applicants grooming and personnel selection. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 399–407. McGovern, T. V. , Tinsley, H. (1978). Interviewer evaluations of int erviewee nonverbal behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 13(2), 163–171. Mehrabian, A. (1967). Orientation behaviors and nonverbal attitude communication. Journal of Communication, 17, 324–332. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago: Atherton. Motowidlo, S. J. , Burnett, J. R. (1995). Aural and visual sources of validity in structured employment interviews. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 61(3), 239–249. Mount, M. K. , Barrick, M. R. , Wonderlic Consulting. (2002). Personal Characteristics Inventory. Libertyville, IL: Wonderlic. Parsons, C. K. , Liden, R. C. (1984). Interviewer perceptions of applicant qualifications: A multivariate field study of demographic characteristics and nonverbal cues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 557–568. Posthuma, R. A. , Morgeson, F. 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Amy Vanderbilts complete book of etiquette. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Webster, P. (1984). An ethnographic study of handshaking. Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1984). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, 1108. Young, D. M. , Beier, E. G. (1977). The role of applicant nonverbal communication in the employment interview. Journal of Employment Counseling, 14, 154–165. Submitted: December 19, 2006 Revised: November 14, 2007 Accepted: February 12, 2008 Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Exploring Handshakes" essay for you Create order

The Legal Aspects Of Information Technology Law Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2279 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category IT Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Legal matters are an unavoidable aspect in our day to day life. Many are not aware that their actions have been derived by law at some point. To appreciate this fact it is essential to understand what laws are. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Legal Aspects Of Information Technology Law Essay" essay for you Create order Law can be defined as a system of rules and regulations that is set as a framework to guide and regulate behavior of people. It allows the society to function properly by securing justice and peace among the many individuals. One important feature of law is that everyone is identified as having equal rights. No one is above the law is the quote that supports this. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat is also a well heard Latin maxim which relates to law. It translates as Ignorance of the law is not a defense. This implies that a person that has committed an act of wrong cannot claim unawareness to avoid liability. It is therefore assumed that any individual taking part in what is outside the activities of a normal person is aware of what they are doing. The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has increased over the past several years mainly as a result of interconnection of environments. The government of Sri Lanka has actively promoted ICT usage in all the sector s of the economy. As a result the ICT literacy in the country has increased from 9% to 19% in four years. However this increase in usage also came with a price as the number of reporting of abuse and misuse also increased dramatically. For example in 2008, 49 incidents were reported to the Sri Lanka Computer Emergency Response Team (CIRT) but only four in 2007. Laws laid down related to ICT helps the Information Technology (IT) professionals to engage in their practice ethically as law abiding citizens [1]. Divisions of Law As civilization began to expand and human behavior became more complex the law system evolved with it. Different branches of law emerged to handle the different areas of human behavior. Most of the laws within a country can be classified with reference to what it hopes to achieve. However topics such as Public law, Private law, Civil law, Criminal law and Contract law etc. cannot be restricted to one area. Criminal and Civil are the two broad classifications of law. The following table depicts their features. Civil Law Criminal Law Deals with disputes between private parties. It is a deliberate or reckless act that causes harm to another person or property. Cases must be proven on a balance of probabilities if it is more likely than not that the defendant caused harm or loss. To convict someone of a crime, the prosecution must show there is proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Remedies are most often monetary. They may include actual damages, as well as pain and suffering. Can including fines and jail time in order to maintain public order. Court Systems of Sri Lanka The Supreme Court The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court in the country. The court rulings have importance over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law [2]. The Court of Appeal This court hears appeals from lower courts. It is the second most senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system, with only the Supreme Court of the Sri Lanka above it. The Court of Appeal hears both criminal appeals in the Criminal Division and civil appeals in the Civil Division. The Criminal Division hears appeals from the Magistrates Courts, while the Civil Division hears appeals from the District courts and High Courts. Decisions may be additionally appealed to the Supreme Court [3]. High Courts High courts handle grave crimes. These courts can be found in the following cities in Sri Lanka Colombo, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Batti caloa, Jaffna, Chilaw, Negombo, Gampaha, Kegalle, Kurunegala, Kandy, Awissawella, Ratnapura, Badulla and Anuradhapura [4]. District Courts District Courts are established for every judicial district in Sri Lanka. The court sittings are held in a place within the territory of the district. Civil matters and disputes that are less than Rs. 3 million in value are handled by these courts. Appeals against the rulings of these courts are passed to the court of appeal [5]. Supreme Court Court of Appeal Magistrate Court District Court High Court Figure 1: Court System of Sri Lanka Sources of Information Technology Law Legislation Legislation is the formal rules enforced by a body that has constitutional rights to do so. In Sri Lanka the only body having this coherent power is the parliament. Its legislation takes the form of Acts and Ordinances passed by parliament. Thus the parliament is called as the law making authority and it is the main source of law that can be identified. Since the field of IT is growing and its importance is increasing, the Sri Lankan parliament has given special priority to form laws related to this field in order to protect the people. There are several Acts which the Sri Lanka parliament has passed in order to control matters related to IT. Judicial Precedents Judicial Precedents was introduced to Sri Lanka during the British period. This implies that the judges of superior courts such as the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal can create new laws. If a dispute arises relating to a field that is not covered by existing law the decisions of the higher court w ill be binding on the lower courts for future cases. Since crimes relating to IT are evolving in various new forms, there can be gaps in existing laws where a guilty party is able to escape liability. Therefore Judicial Precedents play an active role regarding the laws related to this field. Equity Equity has the meaning Maintaining Justice. Equity helps to eliminate the gaps in the legal system by giving non monitory compensations. Equity has also been responsible for the development of the law of the trusts. So it is necessary to consider about Equity when it comes to IT law since fines and damages are not the only method of compensating the injured party. Religion and Customs Due to the presence of various religions in the country, it is necessary to create laws considering the differences among them. According to their religion peoples mind sets and their behaviors are different. A crime in one religion may not be a crime in a different religion. Certain features set customs to be apart and classified as law. English Law European Union Law Other Sources Legislation Equity The Customary common Law Court of Justice So it is necessary to consider these areas to create new IT laws, since Sri Lanka is a multi-religious and multi-cultural country. Figure 2: Sources of English Law European Union Law Directives Treaties Regulations Decisions Recommendations The European Court of Justice Figure 3: Sources of European Union Law Misuse of Information Technology Cyber Crimes A cybercrime is any criminal dealing done by computers or networks. This type of crime has increased significantly with the introduction of shopping websites that require sensitive information to be passed across the web. The following are related examples [6]. Theft of information contained in electronic form Involves the theft of data that is stored in hard disk or removable storage devices. Email bombing Sending a large number of e-mails to the user which causes the victims mail account or serve to crash. Data diddling The attack focuses on changing the raw data before processing and changing the data back soon after it has been processed. Denial of service attack This involves making the computer handle a large number of requests at a single time which results in a crash and also a denial of service to the authorized users. Hacking offences This will affect reliability, accessibility, and privacy of a computer system or network. These can don e by using viruses, worms etc. Other than this unauthorized obtaining or viewing of information from a computer or storing medium, selling, introducing or issuing any device or computer access code or password, providing access information to a unauthorized personnel or in breach of a contract are also computer crimes. Intellectual Property Intellectual Property rights are introduced to protect the interests of creators by giving them property rights over their creations [7]. Intellectual property refers to creations of human mind. There are two basic categories. They are industrial property and copyright. Industrial property includes inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographical indications of source. Copyright includes artistic creations, and is specially related to our subject as it includes technology based work such as computer programs and multimedia productions. Some extra examples are blueprint of architecture, music and song lyrics, plays and screenp lays, audiovisual recordings such as movies and sound recordings. Printing a web page or its HTML code related to the site and downloading an image to hard disk are ways to violates copyright law when using web sites. Computer programs are also protected under the copyright law. Software piracy is a main concern especially in the Asian part of the world. Several Acts have been passed to minimize this issue. Ex: Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)-United States copyright law Contracts Online A contract is formed when the following features have been fulfilled. An on line contract also falls into this category [8]. Offer A supplier might not want to make his products available to all. Therefore we must determine to whom the offer is being made to. For example an online wine merchant doesnt want to sell alcohol to anyone under eighteen or to person in Saudi Arabia where alcohol is illegal. Acceptance The acceptance of an offer creates a contract .An offer is acc epted when a clear confirmation received. This includes any clear signal to accept the offer conversed to the person making the offer. By clicking I Accept on a web site or sending an e-mail is also a legal form of acceptance. Consideration An exchange of promises creates sufficient consideration for a contract to be formed. For example a customer clicking I Accept and providing credit card information, this will be become consideration for a promise that the advertised goods will be supplied. However there are variations. Allowing downloading freeware or shareware from a web site free of charge is an example. Intention to create legal relations Evidence to be legally bound by a contract is not a necessity. The duty of proving that there wasnt an intantion is on the party who declares that no legal outcome was intended. Regulating the use of Information Technology Since the increase in IT usage has expanded over the resent years IT law has been introduced as a method to govern the process of handling information digitally. The legal protection extends to different areas that relate to computer software, access and usage control etc. It is important to handle these crimes to protect all the users because nowadays it is hard to find out somebody who is not using computers or Internet in their day to day life. The following are methods that have been devised to archive this. Local and Foreign Acts For ICT to contribute to the growth of the economy, users must have a guarantee on the safety and dependability of these technologies. Acts enacted by the parliament helps achieve this objective. These Acts govern the prosecution of computer-related crimes. These are now widely used in many countries including our country. Some mostly used Acts are listed below. Foreign Acts Foreign Acts Copyright Act Computer Information Technology Council of Sri Lanka Act No 10 of 1984 The Communications Decency Act of 1996 Electronic Transactions Act No.19 of 2006 The National Stolen Property Act Computer Crime Act No.24 of 2007 Mail and wire fraud statutes Payment Devices Frauds Act No.30 of 2006 The Electronic Communications Privacy Act Electronic Transaction Act No.19 of 2006 The Child Pornography Prevention Act Information Communication Technology Act-No.27 of 2003 The Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 Intellectual property Act 36 of 2003 Dispute Resolution Dispute resolution is used to describe the ways an industrial dispute, whether or not it has resulted in industrial action, may be settled [8]. There are many services available for dispute resolution. Creative Dispute Resolution is one of them that provide mediation, arbitration and other alternative dispute resolution (ADR) services. This has designed to help resolve conflicts of individuals, attorneys and companies etc. ADR s. main advantage is that it provides services to individuals and organizations to resolve their conflicts out of court. It provides administrative services to contact with mediators and arbitrators. Some areas distribute Resolution services addresses are employment, intellectual property, and technology. Many countries have implemented dispute resolution policies for Internet domain names. Ex: ir Domain name dispute resolution policy for. Conclusion IT is a fast moving industry all around the world. Each day new technology is being added and the previous versions evolve beyond recognition. The legal system must be able to sustain this rapid development. Interconnections through networks cut across geographical boundaries and have defined a new set of boundaries that is known as cyberspace. This environment needs laws and legal institutions of its own as territory based legal systems are not sufficient. Throughout the increase in complexity of IT, the legal operations that have been enforced for its protection has not been sufficient. It is an issue that is being faced all around the world and Sri Lanka is also one of its many victims. Although the government has taken many measures such as to enforce major set of Acts such as Computer Crimes Act, information and Communication technology act etc. it has still not been enough to match the flow of development in the field of IT.

History of Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism  is an area of  physics  which involves the study of the  electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between  electrically charged  particles. The electromagnetic force usually produces  electromagnetic fields, such as  electric fields,  magnetic fields  and  light. The electromagnetic force is one of the four  fundamental interactions  (commonly called forces) in  nature. The other three fundamental interactions are the  strong interaction, the  weak interaction  and  gravitation. Until 1820, the only magnetism known was that of iron magnets and of lodestones, natural magnets of iron-rich ore. It was believed that the inside of the Earth was magnetized in the same fashion, and scientists were greatly puzzled when they found that the direction of the compass needle at any place slowly shifted, decade by decade, suggesting a slow variation of the Earths magnetic field. Edmond Halleys Theories How can an iron magnet produce such changes? Edmond Halley  (of comet fame) ingeniously proposed that the Earth contained a number of spherical shells, one inside the other, each magnetized differently, each slowly rotating in relation to the others. Hans Christian Oersted: Electromagnetism Experiments Hans Christian Oersted was a professor of science at Copenhagen University. In 1820 he arranged in his home a science demonstration to friends and students. He planned to demonstrate the heating of a wire by an electric current, and also to carry out demonstrations of magnetism, for which he provided a compass needle mounted on a wooden stand. While performing his electric demonstration, Oersted noted to his surprise that every time the electric current was switched on, the compass needle moved. He kept quiet and finished the demonstrations, but in the months that followed worked hard trying to make sense out of the new phenomenon. However, Oersted could not explain why. The needle was neither attracted to the wire nor repelled from it. Instead, it tended to stand at right angles. In the end, he published his findings without any explanation. Andre Marie Ampere and Electromagnetism Andre Marie Ampere in France felt that if a current in a wire exerted a magnetic force on a compass needle, two such wires also should interact magnetically. In a series of ingenious experiments, Andre Marie Ampere showed that this interaction was simple and fundamental: parallel (straight) currents attract, anti-parallel currents repel. The force between two long straight parallel currents was inversely proportional to the distance between them and proportional to the intensity of the current flowing in each. There thus existed two kinds of forces associated with electricity—electric and magnetic. In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated a subtle connection between the two types of force, unexpectedly involving the velocity of light. From this connection sprang the idea that light was an electric phenomenon, the discovery of radio waves, the theory of relativity and a great deal of present-day physics.

Society Moral in Tithe by Holly Black Essay - 574 Words

In the world where both fairies and humans live together as one, but still not knowing one another exist, both society follow the same moral. Tithe a modern faire tale by Holly Black suggest that no matter who you are you should have loyalty in friendship though the faithfulness between the characters , trust and scarifies that have been made for each other. Loyalty in friendship is shown through the faithfulness of the characters. Robien, a faire had stayed faithful to Kaye after the day he met her. When the Unseelie court faire had come back and wanted Robien back he said, I am home, lady. Now tell your men to put down his weapon and I will allow you to leave Unseelie court unharmed. (Black 325) Robien was very actuated to the†¦show more content†¦Also, fairies do not trust anyone with their names but while Kaye is helping Roiben at a stage of death, he told Kaye his name. Kaye thought to herself, Faires didnt give their names easily even apart of their names, although she had no idea why. (Black 27) Robien knew she could control him if she found out his full name but still decided to trust her, because of her noble deed. In friendship trust is the most important part of loyalty. Moreover, the scarifies one makes for their friends also show the loyalty in the friendship. As Kaye saved Roiben from dying, sacrificing her own life shows the kind of friendship they have. While laying on the ground under a tree Roiben says, I am in your debt. I mislike not knowing how I must repay it. (Black 42) He is thankful to Kaye from saving her and now believes he has to give her life to her. This sacrifice shows how loyal friends would do anything for one another. Along with that Roiben ends up saving Kaye from begin sacrificed for the Tithe. When he saves Kaye, she says, Roiben had known all along what he was offering her his life, (227) During the sacrifice when the Unseelie court Queen began the ceremony he whispered to Kaye What is your but they use it more than you, telling Kaye she had to command him with his full name. Here he scarified himself to her even if it meant to

Explain the Importance of Safeguarding Children and Young People Free Essays

a. Explain the importance of safeguarding children and young people It is important to safeguard children and young people as without this protection their future could be negatively affected. Their health and development could be impaired as its possible they could withdraw from family and peers which would affect them emotionally and also developmentally fall behind with educational milestones (if school is missed). We will write a custom essay sample on Explain the Importance of Safeguarding Children and Young People or any similar topic only for you Order Now Children and young people need to be protected from neglect and abuse and have a safe environment in which to grown up in with parents, teachers and any other close adult being approachable and accessible if needed, when/if any problem or concerns were to arise. This is all crucial in a child’s upbringing as the care they receive through their childhood will contribute to the success of the child’s ability to reach their full potential into adulthood. . Explain the importance of a child or young person centred approach It is important to use a centred approach when safeguarding children. As this will give you the first hand opinion and facts from the child including feelings and wishes about their current situation and their future. This will make the organisations response more accurate and appropriate to meet the specific needs of the child or young person. It is important therefore to develop a trusting relationship with the child or young person as this will make it easier to discuss their wishes and concerns, which will give the professionals the opportunity to involve the child or young person where possible in decision making about current intervention if necessary and any future action, as ‘the unknown’ will undoubtedly be a worry to the child so hopefully making them aware step by step will make the process less daunting and give a more accurate diagnosis to the problem. How to cite Explain the Importance of Safeguarding Children and Young People, Papers

Computer Industry In US Essay Example For Students

Computer Industry In US Essay Computer Industry In USOnly once in a lifetime will a new invention come about to touch every aspect ofour lives. Such a device that changes the way we work, live, and play is aspecial one, indeed. A machine that has done all this and more now exists innearly every business in the U.S. and one out of every two households (Hall,156). This incredible invention is the computer. The electronic computer hasbeen around for over a half-century, but its ancestors have been around for 2000years. However, only in the last 40 years has it changed the American society. From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, thecomputer has changed nearly every aspect of peoples lives for the better. Thevery earliest existence of the modern day computers ancestor is the abacus. These date back to almost 2000 years ago. It is simply a wooden rack holdingparallel wires on which beads are strung. When these beads are moved along thewire according to programming rules that the user must memorize, allordinary arithmetic operations can be performed (Soma, 14). The next innovationin computers took place in 1694 when Blaise Pascal invented the firstdigital calculating machine. It could only add numbers and they hadto be entered by turning dials. It was designed to help Pascals father who wasa tax collector (Soma, 32). In the early 1800s, a mathematics professor namedCharles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine. It was steam poweredand could store up to 1000 50-digit numbers. Built in to his machine wereoperations that included everything a modern general-purpose computer wouldneed. It was programmed byand stored data oncards with holes punched inthem, appropriately called punch cards. His inventions were failuresfor the most part because of the lack of precision machining techniques used atthe time and the lack of demand for such a device (Soma, 46). After Babbage,people began to lose interest in computers. However, between 1850 and 1900 therewere great advances in mathematics and physics that began to rekindle theinterest (Osborne, 45). Many of these new advances involved complex calculationsand formulas that were very time consuming for human calculation. The firstmajor use for a computer in the U.S. was during the 1890 census. Two men, HermanHollerith and James Powers, developed a new punched-card system that couldautomatically read information on cards without human intervention (Gulliver,82). Since the population of the U.S. was increasing so fast, the computer wasan essential tool in tabulating the totals. These advantages were noted bycommercial industries and soon led to the development of improved punch-cardbusiness-machine systems by International Business Machines (IBM),Remington-Rand, Burroughs, and other corporations . By modern standards thepunched-card machines were slow, typically processing from 50 to 250 cards perminute, with each card holding up to 80 digits. At the time, however, punchedcards were an enormous step forward; they provided a means of input, output, andmemory storage on a massive scale. For more than 50 years following their firstuse, punched-card machines did the bulk of the worlds business computing and agood portion of the computing work in science (Chposky, 73). By the late 1930spunched-card machine techniques had become so well established and reliable thatHoward Hathaway Aiken, in collaboration with engineers at IBM, undertookconstruction of a large automatic digital computer based on standard IBMelectromechanical parts. Aikens machine, called the Harvard Mark I, handled23-digit numbers and could perform all four arithmetic operations. Also, it hadspecial built-in programs to handled logarithms and trigonometric functions. TheMark I was controlled from prepunched paper tape. Output was by card punch andelectric typewriter. It was slow, requiring 3 to 5 seconds for a multiplication,but it was fully automatic and could complete long computations without humanintervention (Chposky, 103). The outbreak of World War II produced a desperateneed for computing capability, especially for the military. New weapons systemswere produced which needed trajectory tables and other essential data. In 1942,John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchley, and their associates at the University ofPennsylvania decided to build a high-speed electronic computer to do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC, for Electrical Numerical IntegratorAnd Calculator. It could multiply two numbers at the rate of 300 productsper second, by finding the value of each product from a multiplication tablestored in its memory. ENIAC was thus about 1,000 times faster than the previousgeneration of computers (Dolotta, 47).ENIAC used 18,000 standard vacuum tubes,occupied 1800 square feet of floor space, and used about 180,000 watts ofelectricity. It used punched-card input and output. The ENIAC was very difficultto program because one had to essentially re-wire it to perform whatever task hewanted the computer to do. It was, however, efficient in handling the particularprograms for which it had been designed. ENIAC is generally accepted as thefirst successful high-speed electronic digital computer and was used in manyapplications from 1946 to 1955 (Dolotta, 50). Mathematician John von Neumann wasvery interested in the ENIAC. In 1945 he undertook a theoretical study ofcomp utation that demonstrated that a computer could have a very simple and yetbe able to execute any kind of computation effectively by means of properprogrammed control without the need for any changes in hardware. Von Neumanncame up with incredible ideas for methods of building and organizing practical,fast computers. These ideas, which came to be referred to as the stored-programtechnique, became fundamental for future generations of high-speed digitalcomputers and were universally adopted (Hall, 73). The first wave of modernprogrammed electronic computers to take advantage of these improvements appearedin 1947. This group included computers using random access memory (RAM), whichis a memory designed to give almost constant access to any particular piece ofinformation (Hall, 75). These machines had punched-card or punched-tape inputand output devices and RAMs of 1000-word capacity. Physically, they were muchmore compact than ENIAC: some were about the size of a grand piano and requir ed2500 small electron tubes. This was quite an improvement over the earliermachines. The first-generation stored-program computers required considerablemaintenance, usually attained 70% to 80% reliable operation, and were used for 8to 12 years. Typically, they were programmed directly in machine language,although by the mid-1950s progress had been made in several aspects of advancedprogramming. This group of machines included EDVAC and UNIVAC, the firstcommercially available computers (Hazewindus, 102). The UNIVAC was developed byJohn W. Mauchley and John Eckert, Jr. in the 1950s. Together they had formedthe Mauchley-Eckert Computer Corporation, Americas first computer company inthe 1940s. During the development of the UNIVAC, they began to run short onfunds and sold their company to the larger Remington-Rand Corporation. St. John the Evangelist EssaySoftware was needed to run the computers as well. Microsoft developed a DiskOperating System (MS-DOS) for the IBM computer while Apple developed its ownsoftware system (Rose, 37). Because Microsoft had now set the software standardfor IBMs, every software manufacturer had to make their software compatible withMicrosofts. This would lead to huge profits for Microsoft (Cringley, 163). Themain goal of the computer manufacturers was to make the computer as affordableas possible while increasing speed, reliability, and capacity. Nearly everycomputer manufacturer accomplished this and computers popped up everywhere. Computers were in businesses keeping track of inventories. Computers were incolleges aiding students in research. Computers were in laboratories makingcomplex calculations at high speeds for scientists and physicists. The computerhad made its mark everywhere in society and built up a huge industry (Cringley,174). The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology. Thespeed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in the comingyears. As manufacturing techniques are further perfected the prices of computersystems are expected to steadily fall. However, since the microprocessortechnology will be increasing, its higher costs will offset the drop in priceof older processors. In other words, the price of a new computer will stay aboutthe same from year to year, but technology will steadily increase (Zachary, 42)Since the end of World War II, the computer industry has grown from a standingstart into one of the biggest and most profitable industries in the UnitedStates. It now comprises thousands of companies, making everything frommulti-million dollar high-speed supercomputers to printout paper and floppydisks. It employs millions of people and generates tens of billions of dollarsin sales each year (Malone, 192). Surely, the computer has impacted every aspectof peoples lives. It has affected the way people work and play. It has madeeveryones life easier by doing difficult work for people. The computer truly isone of the most incredible inventions in history.